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Muscle Proteomics and Nanotechnology Section, Laboratory of Muscle Biology, National Institutes of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
Correspondence: Address reprint requests to Kuan Wang, PhD, Building 50, Rm. 1140, Laboratory of Muscle Biology, NIAMS, National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892. Tel.: 301-496-4097; Fax: 301-402-0009; E-mail: wangk{at}exchange.nih.gov.
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTSDISCUSSIONACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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). The interplay of the two filaments has been examined experimentally by two general approaches: 1), preferential extraction and reconstitution or exchange with modified or analogous proteins; and 2), the use of specific inhibitors (usually small chemical compounds) to perturb or inhibit protein interactions. In the present study, we have employed inhibitors that preferentially target either the TnC in the thin filament or the myosin heads in the thick filament, to gain further understanding of the relative contribution and interdependence of the activation processes of the thin and the thick filaments.
To inhibit the thin filament activation via TnC, we utilized n-(6-aminohexyl) 5-chloro-1-napthalenesulfonamide (W7) as an inhibitor, a compound originally developed as a potent and specific inhibitor of calmodulin (CaM) function (Hidaka et al., 1980). W7 is known to bind specifically and with high affinity to CaM (Kd = 11 µM at 25°C) and to TnC (Kd = 25 µM at 25°C), but not to actin, myosin, or tropomyosin (Tm) (Hidaka et al., 1980). W7 binds to the hydrophobic pocket formed by the EF hands within each domain of CaM and competes directly with the binding of CaM-dependent enzymes (Osawa et al., 1998). Although W7 binds to TnC in solution, its potential ability to inhibit muscle activation was curiously not borne out by previous work in skinned rabbit psoas fibers (Ogawa and Kurebayashi, 1989). We found that, contrary to this early work, W7 indeed is a potent and reversible inhibitor of calcium activation in skinned fibers from both rabbit skeletal and mouse cardiac muscles.
The inhibitory effect of W7 in skeletal fibers was compared with that of 2,3-butanedione 2-monoxime (BDM), a widely used inhibitor that targets actively cycling myosin heads (Herrmann et al., 1992; McKillop et al., 1994) and inhibits ATPase uncompetitively by stabilizing the posthydrolysis state before the force-generating isomerization state (McKillop et al., 1994; Regnier et al., 1995; Tesi et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 1995; Zhao and Kawai, 1994). The combined use of W7 and BDM offers an opportunity to examine the degree and the mechanism of coupling between the thin and the thick filaments during calcium activation of contraction. To assess the inhibition in rabbit skeletal and mouse cardiac muscle, we measured the activations of ATPase and tension simultaneously as calcium concentration was increased continuously from pCa 8.0 to 4.5. Comparison of the extent of inhibition and the coupling between ATPase and tension were facilitated by subjecting the same samples to several cycles of activation/relaxation in the presence of the inhibitors. The ATPase- and tension-pCa curves were fitted with the Hill equation to determine the cooperativity and calcium sensitivity of activation (Donaldson and Kerrick, 1975).
We report that W7 is a potent and reversible inhibitor of thin filament-mediated calcium activation in skeletal and cardiac fibers. W7 reversibly reduces the ATPase, tension and the tension cost (ATPase/tension ratio) over the entire range of activation by calcium. The comparison of W7 and BDM inhibitions in skeletal and cardiac fibers revealed the interdependence of thin- and thick-filament-based activations in each muscle type.
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2 kg) as described previously (Adhikari and Wang, 2001). Skinned fiber bundles from mouse papillary were prepared according to Fewell et al. (1998). After euthanasia of mice by CO2 and cervical dislocation, the heart was removed and immediately immersed in solution A (5.37 mM Na2ATP, 30 mM phosphocreatine, 5 mM K-EGTA, 20 mM BES, 7.33 mM MgCl2, 0.12 mM CaCl2, 10 mM DTE, 1% (v/v) protease inhibitor cocktail (P-8340, Sigma, St. Louis, MO), 30 mM BDM, and 32 mM potassium methanesulfonate, pH 7.0). Uniform sections of left ventricular papillary tissues (0.5 mm x 2–3 mm) were dissected and skinned in solution B (5.5 mM Na2ATP, 5 mM K-EGTA, 20 mM BES, 6.13 mM MgCl2, 0.11 mM CaCl2, 10 mM DTE, the protease inhibitor cocktail, 121.8 mM potassium methanesulfonate at pH 7.0, and 50% glycerol and 0.5% (v/v) Triton X-100) for 12 h, and stored in solution B without detergent at -20°C until use.
Single rabbit psoas fibers were dissected from bundles under relaxing solution (Table 1) and glued to aluminum T-clips (0.5 x 2 mm) using an octyl-formulated cyanoacrylate glue (Nexaband S/C, Closure Medical Corporation, Raleigh, NC) at a length of 1.5–2 mm and attached via holes in the T-clips. The attachment was via tweezers without the T-clips for the simultaneous pCa-ATPase and pCa-tension measurements (Fig. 1 A). Mice papillary tissues were dissected under solution A to get thin and uniform fiber bundles (100–150 µm x 2 mm) and subjected to a further skinning for 4–6 h in solution B. All calcium activation experiments were carried out at 20°C at a preset sarcomere length (SL) = 2.2 µm.
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. Calculated solution pCa was routinely verified with calcium selective electrode (Orion Research, Beverly, MA) using calibrated pCa standards (WPI, Sarasota, FL).
Tension and dynamic stiffness measurements
A previously described instrument (Granzier and Wang, 1993) with modifications was used to measure tension and dynamic stiffness (single or sweeps between 1 and 2000 Hz) under isometric conditions. Stiffness refers to the dynamic stiffness determined by the ratio of the amplitudes of tension and percent fiber length resulting from sinusoidal oscillations (0.1% fiber length or 1 nm per half sarcomere s-1) imposed at one end of fiber through the length transducer. Fiber cross-sectional area was calculated assuming uniform cylindrical diameter from the average of 4–8 measurements taken at equidistant points along fiber axis at a magnification of 400x.
pCa curves of tension and ATPase
The pCa curves of ATPase and tension for a given fiber from pCa 8.0 to 4.6 at 20°C (Fig. 1 A) were determined simultaneously in a commercially available instrument (Scientific Instrument, Heidelberg, Germany), as described previously (Adhikari and Wang, 2001). Typically, multiple cycles of activation, each preceded by a relaxation period, were carried out on the same sample at different inhibitor concentrations to determine the extent and reversibility of the inhibition. Raw data from one of the activation cycles (Fig. 4, II-Cycle 2) after treatment and washing of W7 are shown in Fig. 1 B. Each spike in the tension and ATPase traces corresponds to the successive perfusions of the sample. The ATPase, given by the rate of decrease of NADH fluorescence between each perfusion, and the tension remain at baseline values until sufficient calcium is available to activate the fiber and trigger a rapid response to saturating values at higher calcium (lower pCa). ATP turnover per myosin head s-1 were determined by calibration of fluorescence intensity with known concentrations of NADH, assuming myosin head concentration of 150 µM (Bagshaw, 1993).
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C, U (
1), determine the decreases in the pK (as a measure of competitive inhibition) and the maximal activation (as a measure of uncompetitive inhibition), respectively. The pK is given by (KM-log (C)/n) and the relative maximal activation is given by 100%/U. In the absence of inhibitor, C, U = 1, and Eq. 2 then reduces to the Hill equation used previously for the analysis of pCa curves (Donaldson and Kerrick, 1975). |
RESULTS |
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).
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17%) between pCa 5.8 and 5.0 remained (Fig. 4, I-Cycle 1). When the concentration was reduced in successive activation cycles, ATPase and tension recovered correspondingly, with the curves at 0 µM returning to the steep and high amplitude curves typical of the untreated fibers (Fig. 4, untreated). The maximum activations of ATPase and tension were, respectively, 39 and 11% at 100 µM and 83 and 58% at 20 µM. It is interesting that ATPase is more sensitive to calcium activation, with a pK that is higher by +0.12 than that of the tension pCa curves without W7 (Fig. 4, untreated). This difference was widened to +0.2 to 0.4 at higher concentrations of W7 (Fig. 4). From the variations of maximal ATPase and maximal tension against W7, KI-ATPase, and KI-Tension were determined as 75 µM and 25 µM, respectively.
A closer examination of the deviations of experimental and fitted ATPase-pCa curves revealed the likely presence of three component curves (Fig. 4). The first component (l) was observed at the onset of activation between pCa 6.6 and 5.9 (bracket, Fig. 4, I-Cycle 2). This leading component (l), which peaks at 20% of the maximal ATPase value, was frequently, but not always, inhibited by W7. The second and major component comprised 80% of the total maximal ATPase observed between pCa 5.9 and 5.0 and was W7-sensitive (fitted solid curve, Fig. 4, I-Cycle 2). A third, trailing component (t) was observed between pCa 5.6 and 5.0 that accounted for 17% of the maximal ATPase and was uninhibited by high concentrations of W7 to at least 300 µM (bracket, Fig. 4, II-Cycle 1).
Inhibition of cardiac muscle activation by W7
Since TnC-mediated calcium activation is analogous in skeletal and cardiac muscle, we evaluated whether W7 has a similar effect on mouse papillary muscle. As in skeletal fibers, the inhibition of activations of ATPase and tension by W7 was reversible and characterized by reduced maxima and reduced calcium sensitivities. However, cardiac fibers appeared to be more resistant to W7, with a KI-ATPase of 80 µM and KI-Tension of 25 µM.
The maximal ATPase and tension in the same papillary fiber bundle were 48 and 25% at 100 µM (Fig. 5, Cycle 2); 58 and 40% at 25 µM (Fig. 5, Cycle 3); and finally, after washing, restored to 80 and 70% at 0 µM (Fig. 5, Cycle 4).
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; Wang et al., 1999). Closer examination of this and other curves indicated that ATPase curves frequently led the tension curves by a small but detectable difference of 0.03 pCa unit (Fig. 5, Cycle 1). This lead was significantly widened in W7 treated fibers, to +0.16 at 100 µM (Fig. 5, Cycles 2–4). Subsequent washing of treated fibers did little to narrow the lead, despite the restoration of ATPase and tension. Interestingly, the leading ATPase component of skeletal fibers, activated between pCa 6.6 and 5.8, was absent in cardiac fibers (Fig. 5).
Alteration of calcium activation in skeletal fibers by W7 and BDM
We next compared the W7 inhibition with BDM in rabbit psoas fibers to explore whether the combined use of W7 and BDM could provide insights on the interplay of the thin filament- and thick filament-based pathways of calcium activation. Fig. 6 shows the results of calcium activation of a fiber treated sequentially with BDM and/or W7 in four cycles. The maximal ATPase and tension were diminished to 40 and 12%, respectively, in 30 mM BDM, with the tension inhibition comparable to previous studies (Martyn et al., 1999). Based on such curves, KI-ATPase and KI-Tension of BDM were 20 mM and 5–8 mM, respectively (data not shown). In 10 mM BDM and 50 µM W7, tension maximum was reduced to nearly zero (1.7%) whereas the ATPase maximum was 22%. These values were comparable to the inhibition observed in 300 µM W7 (Fig. 4) but significantly lower than those in 30 mM BDM. Upon reactivation of the same fiber in 10 mM BDM, the maximal ATPase and tension returned to 60 and 35%, respectively. When the fiber was washed to remove free W7 and BDM, the activations approached untreated levels. Interestingly, the leading component of ATPase activation between pCa 6.6 and 5.9 (bracketed in Fig. 4, I-Cycle 2; Fig. 6, Cycle 4), which was inhibited by W7 (Fig. 4, I-Cycle 1, and II-Cycles 1 and 2), was also reduced by BDM (Fig. 6, Cycles 1 and 3).
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5.3 for both ATPase (unfilled symbols in Fig. 7 B) and tension curves (solid symbols in Fig. 7 B). Thus at pCa >5.3, the two inhibitors appear to interfere with each other to give a higher ATPase and tension than those predicted; at pCa <5.3, the two inhibitors appear to enhance the inhibition, resulting in lower ATPase and tension than those predicted.
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). After the washing to remove inhibitors, the fibers displayed a slightly lower maximal ATPase (by 14%) and maximal tension (by 5%). In normalized pCa curves, the pK of ATPase and tension decreased by 0.1 and 0.18 pCa units, respectively, with a corresponding drop of n-values by 2 and 3 (Table 2). These changes are comparable to those of fibers that were taken through two consecutive activation cycles in the absence of inhibitors (data not shown).
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). On the assumption that ATPase is myosin-based under our experimental conditions, the tension cost for untreated skeletal fibers upon activation declined steeply from 6 at pCa of 5.6/5.7 to a plateau value of 1 below pCa 5.5 (Fig. 8 A). The tension cost from pCa 6.6 to 5.7 is undefined, since no force was measurable for this leading component of the ATPase-pCa curves (see above). This tension cost-pCa curve indicates that the coupling between ATPase and force generation at the onset of activation is suboptimal and becomes increasingly efficient and reaches a maximum only after this skeletal muscle is fully activated near pCa 5.5 and beyond. Significantly, the tension cost-pCa curve in untreated cardiac fibers was nearly flat over the entire pCa range (Fig. 8 B). This curve indicates a constant coupling efficiency between ATPase and tension during activation of cardiac muscles and suggests a qualitative difference of calcium activation between the two muscles.
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2 at pCa 4.9 (Fig. 8 A). Similarly, the curve at 100 µM W7 was even higher than 20 µM W7 and plateaued to 3 (Fig. 8 A). In cardiac fibers treated with W7, a similar increase in tension cost was observed with increasing concentrations of W7 (Fig. 8 B). After washing of treated fibers to remove inhibitors, the tension cost curves recovered completely for the skeletal muscle and significantly for the cardiac muscle (compare untreated and posttreated curves in Fig. 8). The skeletal muscle curve at 30 mM BDM descended from 6 at pCa 5.4 to a plateau at 3 at pCa 5.1 (Fig. 8 C). These data indicate that these inhibitors increase the tension cost of contraction over the entire range of pCa for both skeletal and cardiac muscles. |
DISCUSSION |
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), for the fine control of contraction of live muscle fibers. It may also be utilized in keeping these muscles relaxed in the presence of Ca2+.
TnC as a primary target for the W7 inhibition of calcium activation
The W7 inhibition is most likely mediated via specific interactions between W7 and TnC. In solution W7 binds specifically to TnC and not to Tm, actin, or myosin (Hidaka et al., 1980). Significantly, the KI-Tension values determined here in both muscle types are in excellent agreement with the previously determined KD of 25 µM of W7 for TnC in solution (Hidaka et al., 1980), strongly supporting the notion that TnC is the primary target for the W7 inhibition.
Recent NMR studies show one molecule of W7 bound to one domain of CaM, competing directly for the deep hydrophobic pocket where the CaM-activated regulatory proteins bind (Osawa et al., 1998). Since the 10 N-terminal residues of CaM involved in the W7 binding differ from TnC by only one conservative substitution in fast skeletal TnC (Ile-60 in place of Met-52 of CaM (Huang et al., 1998; Osawa et al., 1998) and mouse cardiac TnC (Val-73 in place of Ile-64) (our unpublished data), it is likely that W7 binds to TnC in the same way. Additionally, since the overall conformation and the recognition mechanisms are similar between the structures of TnC/TnI1-47 (Vassylyev et al., 1998) and CaM-target peptides (Ikura et al., 1992; Meador et al., 1992), we speculate that W7 might competitively inhibit the interactions between TnI and TnC during calcium activation, thereby disabling the thin filaments (see Scheme 1 below).
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), suggesting an inactive TnC upon W7 binding. Other secondary targets of W7, such as myosin light chains and other EF hand proteins are conceivable, but unlikely to be quantitatively significant. Solution ATPase activities of myosin and actomyosin are not significantly altered when light chains (RLC or ELC) are chemically modified by spin labels attached to their cysteine residues (Adhikari et al., 1997; Palm et al., 1999). Even an 50% removal of RLC only reduced maximal tension by 20% in rabbit psoas fibers, (Roopnarine, 2003). Our own studies showed a slight inhibitory effect of W7 on the in vitro motility of actin over myosin-heavy meromyosin (e.g., a 25% reduction at 100 µM W7), whereas the high salt Ca2+ and Mg2+ S1 ATPase activities were unaffected up to 300 µM W7 (B. Adhikari, W. Li, and K. Wang, unpublished observations). These biochemical data suggest a possible inhibition of actomyosin interaction, albeit at high concentrations of W7. Another potential candidate, S100A1, a calcium sensor protein that modulates skeletal and cardiac muscle activation (Adhikari and Wang, 2001; Most et al., 2001), is absent in the skinned muscle fibers used (B. Adhikari and K. Wang, unpublished observations). S100A1 therefore is not a relevant target of W7 in these skinned fibers.
Calcium activation: an interplay of the thin and the thick filaments
Based on the analysis above, a scheme of the inhibitory action of W7 in the context of an actomyosin chemomechanical cycle (from Tesi et al., 2002) is presented in Scheme 1 (A, actin-thin filament; M, myosin; all inactivated forms are in italic). During activation of untreated fibers, Ca2+ binds and activates TnC, which in turn activates the thin filaments, enabling myosin to interact with actin, to hydrolyze ATP and to generate force (noforce-to-force transition). W7 is proposed to bind primarily to the Ca2+ bound form of TnC and inactivates the thin filament (AW7 in Scheme 1) without altering the binding affinity between calcium and TnC (Hidaka et al., 1980; Inagaki et al., 1983). BDM is depicted as inhibiting primarily the A-M.ADP.Pi state, although other states may be secondary targets (Tesi et al., 2002, and references cited therein).
Although a quantitative analysis of this molecular scheme is beyond the scope of this work, some interesting inferences can be reached. First, since W7 appears to inhibit overall ATPase and tension both competitively and noncompetitively (as revealed by its reduction of both pK and maximal activation), we suggest that calcium binding to TnC and the level of activation of the thin filaments are influenced by the subsequent steps in the cycle. A purely noncompetitive inhibitor, where both calcium binding to TnC and the level of thin filament activation are independent of subsequent steps (see Eq. 2 in Methods), would reduce ATPase and tension without reducing pK or n. Likewise, the mixed-type inhibition for BDM or for BDM plus W7 is consistent with the presence of significant interdependence between the level of activation of the thin filaments and the strength of the actin-myosin interactions.
Current molecular models for activation invoke three states of thin filaments, corresponding to three positions of Tm on the thin filament (al-Khayat et al., 1995; Craig and Lehman, 2001; Lehman et al., 1994; McKillop and Geeves, 1993; Smith and Geeves, 2003; Smith et al., 2003; Vibert et al., 1997). Under relaxing conditions, Tm lies at the periphery of the actin filaments in the blocked position whereas myosin heads are largely detached. With the rise in calcium ions, Tm shifts to the closed state, where weak interactions are allowed between myosin heads and thin filament, and then to the open state where strong interactions occur and generate force. The calcium-dependent transition between the closed and open states of Tm is thought to be the most important step for activation, with the strongly bound myosin heads in the open state contributing to the high cooperativity of activation (reviewed in Gordon et al., 2001; Hitchcock-DeGregori, 2002). A blocked and/or closed Tm position, where myosin heads are unable to strongly attach to thin filaments and generate force, would be consistent with the proportional inhibition of tension and stiffness inhibition by W7 (Fig. 3, inset).
It is thought that the level of force during Ca2+ activation reflects the availability of open Tm states (Gordon et al., 2000). The observation that W7 and BDM either interfere each other at high pCa (level of force is higher than predicted sum) or enhance each other at low pCa (level of force is lower than the predicted sum) suggests a complex, calcium-dependent redistribution of Tm states when both pathways are inhibited. Our data thus support and extend the notion that calcium activation of striated muscle contractility involves an interplay between the activation of regulatory complexes of the thin filament and the binding and cycling of myosin heads to thin filaments, as previously proposed by others (Fitzsimons et al., 2001; Fuchs, 1977; Gordon et al., 1988; Guth and Potter, 1987; Hoar et al., 1987; Li and Fajer, 1994, 1998; Millar and Homsher, 1990; Swartz and Moss, 1992; Wakabayashi et al., 1991). W7 inhibition provides a glimpse of the additional complexity of the calcium regulation pathways and it can be exploited, either alone or in combination with other effectors, to achieve a more quantitative understanding of the elementary steps of calcium activation pathways, especially the interdependence of the various steps (see e.g., Razumova et al., 2000).
Tension cost and calcium activation of skeletal and cardiac muscles
The tension cost as a function of calcium activation can be examined in terms of a simple two-state model of force generation based on the original 1957 Huxley model (Huxley, 1957), where myosin heads switch between the nonforce generating (weak) and force generating (strong) states and hydrolyze one molecule of ATP per cycle (reviewed in Sieck and Regnier, 2001). The transition between the two groups of states can be described by fapp, the forward rate constant, and gapp, the reverse rate constant (Brenner, 1988; Kerrick et al., 1991; Kushmerick and Krasner, 1982). In this model the ratio of ATPase/tension equals the product of the number of half sarcomeres in the fiber, the mean force generated by each myosin head (F) and gapp. Since the number of half sarcomeres is constant for the same sample, the changes of this ratio reflect changes of F, gapp, or both.
The declining ATPase/tension ratio with increasing activation level implies a decrease in either the mean force of myosin head and/or in the rate of myosin head dissociation. Conversely, the higher ratio during inhibition over the entire pCa range (Fig. 8) implies increased myosin mean force and/or higher myosin head dissociation rate (i.e., more myosin heads in the weak-binding states). It should be noted that the experimental error in the ATPase/tension ratio is substantial for the region near the onset of activation. However, this error quickly declines as tension increases and approaches the maximum. For this reason, comparison of tension cost-pCa curves are more useful at pCa below the midpoint of the activation, which is 5.6 for skeletal muscle and 5.4 for cardiac fibers (see Fig. 8). The presence of the leading component of ATPase curves between pCa 6.6 and 5.8 (brackets in Fig. 4) contributed at least partly to the high tension cost near pCa 5.8–5.6. Interestingly, this leading component is absent in the cardiac muscle and the tension cost curve is independent of pCa. These data raise the possibility that this inhibitor-sensitive component of ATPase of skeletal muscle reflects the existence of a heretofore-uncharacterized calcium sensitive actomyosin interaction between pCa 6.6 and 5.8.
The tension cost-pCa curves reveal that the mouse cardiac tissue is more efficiently coupled for tension generation over the entire range of activation, whereas skeletal muscle appears to be at maximum efficiency only at or near maximal activation. It may be no coincidence that energy efficiency is somehow optimized to coincide with the range of their physiological levels of activation, which is submaximal for cardiac fibers and maximal for skeletal fibers (Fabiato, 1981). The interplay of the two activation pathways may play a role in the mechanism of optimization of energy-tension coupling.
In summary, we have presented a novel use of W7 to reversibly inhibit striated muscle activation. This inhibition appears to act primarily via the binding to TnC and the subsequent inactivation of the thin filaments. Examination of the tension and ATPase curves over the entire range of calcium activation in the presence of W7, BDM, and a combination of both, have revealed the complexity and interplay of thin filament- and thick filament-based activation pathways.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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Abbreviations used: TnC, troponin C; CPK, creatine phosphokinase; SL, sarcomere length; CaM, calmodulin; KPr, potassium propionate; LDH, L-lactic dehydrogenase; PEP, phosphoenolpyruvate; PK: pyruvate kinase; EGTA, ethylene glycolbis(ß-amino-ethyl ether)-n,n,n',n' tetraacetic acid; RLC, regulatory light chain; ELC, essential light chain; BES, n,n-bis[2-Hydroxyethyl]-2-aminoethane-sulfonic acid.
Submitted on February 7, 2003; accepted for publication August 18, 2003.
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REFERENCES |
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