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* Physics Department and Center for Biophysics and Computational Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois; and Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology and Laboratory of Cell Biology, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
Correspondence: Address reprint requests to Paul R. Selvin, Loomis Lab of Physics, 1110 W. Green St., University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801. Tel.: 217-244-3371; Fax: 217-244-7559; E-mail: selvin{at}uiuc.edu.
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSUMMARYSUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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37 nm per step. We have measured the step size of individual myosin heads by fusing an enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) to the N-terminus of one head of the myosin dimer and following the motion with nanometer precision and subsecond resolution. We find the average step size to be 74.1 nm with 9.4 nm (SD) and 0.3 nm (SE). Our measurements demonstrate nanometer localization of single eGFPs, confirm the hand-over-hand model of myosin V procession, and when combined with previous data, suggest that there is a kink in the leading lever arm in the waiting state of myosin V. This kink, or "telemark skier" configuration, may cause strain, which, when released, leads to the powerstroke of myosin, throwing the rear head forward and leading to unidirectional motion. |
INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSUMMARYSUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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). It contains two "heads" held together by a coiled-coiled cargo-carrying stalk. Each head contains a globular domain responsible for actin binding and ATP hydrolysis, and an 24-nm-long 
-helix bound to six calmodulins that likely act as a lever arm to amplify small nucleotide-dependent conformational changes in the globular domain (Forkey et al., 2003; Howard, 1997; Mehta, 2001; Purcell et al., 2002). The cargo, or center of mass, moves 35–40 nm for each ATP hydrolyzed (Ali et al., 2002; Forkey et al., 2003; Mehta et al., 1999; Rief et al., 2000; Rock et al., 2001). Recent work has shown that myosin V moves processively along actin in a "hand-over-hand" or "walking" manner in which each head takes turn in the lead (Forkey et al., 2003; Yildiz et al., 2003). The rear head translates 74 nm, moving past the front head, which remains stationary, and the cargo is moved 37 nm for each step (Fig. 1). This is in contrast to an inchworm model, which has, for example, been postulated for kinesin (Hua et al., 2002). In an inchworm model, all parts of the motor protein translate uniformly—for myosin V, this would be 37 nm.
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). Unidirectional motion implies functional asymmetry between the heads to create out-of-phase binding and hydrolysis. For example, to create a forward step, the front head should be tightly bound whereas the rear head is not bound. One model postulates that ATP binding to the rear head releases that head, which is then thrown forward by strain created previously in the myosin (Rief et al., 2000; Spudich, 2001). (To prevent binding of ATP and release of the front head, strain-induced inhibition of ATP binding to the front head has been postulated in the kinesin motor (Rosenfeld et al., 2003).)
The location of this strain is uncertain. An attractive model is the "telemark skier," where the front head is bent or kinked (Fig. 1, right) (Burgess et al., 2002; Spudich, 2001; Walker et al., 2000). When the rear head binds ATP and is released from actin, the strain released from the bend would tend to throw the rear head forward. A sharp bend in the front head was seen in some negatively stained myosin V images, where the bend was interpreted to be just before the lever arm—most likely in the pliant region (Dominguez et al., 1998) between the converter domain (part of the catalytic domain) and the first IQ motif of the lever arm (Walker et al., 2000). More gentle distortions in the lever arm itself were also observed, and other myosin Vs appeared to have straight lever arms. The subset of lever arms that fell into a relatively straight configuration were analyzed in detail in a later article that showed that the rear head was in a postpowerstroke conformation and the leading head was in a prepowerstroke conformation (Burgess et al., 2002).
An alternative telemark skier model places the bend directly in the lever arm. This model makes two testable predictions. First, as noted by Forkey et al., a dye rigidly attached to a calmodulin below the kink will not reorient during a step, whereas a dye placed above the kink will reorient (Forkey et al., 2003). Forkey et al. observed two populations of dyes, one that rotated, and one that did not rotate during a step, although the locations of the dyes corresponding to these two populations were not determined (Forkey et al., 2003). Second, the step size of a dye below the kink will alternate between 74 nm and 0 nm—the same as a dye on the globular domain—whereas the step size of a dye above the kink will alternate between a large step that is <74 nm, and a small step that is >0 nm (Fig. 1). Finally, a telemark skier configuration in which the bend is in the converter domain below the lever arm, such as that suggested by Walker et al. (2000), leads to stepping of <74 nm and >0 nm for a dye anywhere in the lever arm, i.e., a stepping pattern characteristic of a straight lever arm.
Yildiz et al. (2003) developed a technique where the position of a dye could be located with 1.5 nm precision, with subsecond temporal resolution (fluorescence imaging one nanometer accuracy (FIONA)). Using FIONA, they measured step sizes and showed that a dye on a calmodulin could step 74 and 0 nm. Assuming the catalytic domains are 37 nm apart, i.e., take 74 nm steps, this result suggests a "telemark skier" configuration in which the lever arm is bent. However, because labeling on the globular domain was not done by Yildiz et al. (2003), a direct measurement of the globular domain step size is necessary to confirm the telemark model with a lever arm bend.
We now extend FIONA to enable nanometer localization of single GFPs and measure the step size of the globular domain of myosin V. Others have previously imaged single GFPs bound to kinesin (Pierce et al., 1997), and 30 nm localization with 5 ms temporal resolution (Kubitscheck et al., 2000; Schmidt et al., 1996) has been achieved. Here we have constructed a heterodimeric myosin V containing an N-terminal eGFP on one catalytic domain, with the other head unlabeled. We show 4–10 nm localization of single GFP with subsecond temporal resolution and a photostability that enables typical observation times of 25 s, with observation times as long as 75 s. Control experiments using a nanometric stage verify our ability to accurately measure step sizes. ATP-induced myosin V steps are also measured. We find the globular domain takes 74 nm steps, which, when combined with the results of Yildiz et al. (2003) supports a telemark skier model with a bend in the front lever arm.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSUMMARYSUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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). The image of a single dye, called the point-spread function (PSF) has a width of 
/2, or 250 nm for visible excitation. However, the center of the PSF, which, under appropriate conditions, represents the position of the dye (Bartko and Dickson, 1999a,b), can be determined with nanometer precision (Thompson et al., 2002; Yildiz et al., 2003). We use a two-dimensional (2-D) Gaussian fit to the PSF, described further below.
Experiments were performed using objective-type TIRF (Tokunaga et al., 1997) on an Olympus IX-70 microscope. Stage-stepping experiments in which a GFP was immobilized on a coverslip and the coverslip translated in 36 nm steps were performed with an Olympus 60x 1.45 numerical aperture (NA) oil immersion objective, magnified by a 1.5x microscope lens. Myosin motility experiments were done with an Olympus 100x 1.65 NA objective, and rarely with the 1.45 NA objective. Samples were illuminated with the 488 nm line of an Ar-ion laser (model 543-AP-A01, Melles Griot, Carlsbad, CA). The laser power was 0.5 mW entering the microscope with the 100x objective and a spot size of 12 µm in diameter, and 2 mW with the 60x objective and a spot size of 18 µm. A Q505LP dichroic and HQ550/100 emission filter (Chroma, Rockingham, VT) were used to separate excitation from fluorescence. Images were collected with a scientific grade, back-thinned, frame transfer charge-coupled device camera (Micromax 512BFT, Roper Scientific, Trenton, NJ), consisting of a 512 x 512 array of 13 µm x 13 µm pixels. The camera can acquire a full frame in 0.35 s without any significant dead time at 1 MHz readout rate. Background noise in the camera is limited by readout noise: 0.5 counts/pixel/s comes from dark current and 5.9 counts/pixel/s from readout noise. All experiments were performed by integrating 0.5 s/frame.
Sample chamber preparation
Microscope slides were prepared before cleaning by drilling two holes separated by 1–1.5 cm with a 3/4 mm diamond drill bit (see Supplementary Material). The holes become the entrance and exit holes for solutions to be flowed through the chamber. Sample chambers were prepared by sonicating microscope coverslips and slides separately for 30 min in acetone, followed by a thorough rinse and sonication with doubly deionized water, then 30 min sonication in 1 M KOH, and then rinsed and sonicated for 15 min in doubly deionized water. A sample chamber was assembled from a clean coverslip and microscope slide by placing double-sided tape next to the holes and placing a clean coverslip over the tape. The ends were sealed with epoxy. The volume of the chamber is 10–20 µL. For the myosin motility studies, photobleaching of any fluorescent contamination after a few minutes during the long (1 h) observation times further reduced background. These extended observations in a single field were possible because the myosin continually comes out of solution, and then walks along actin. Fluorescent myosin could easily be distinguished from fluorescent dirt by its ability to move.
Stage-stepping experiment
eGFP (Clonetech, Palo Alto, CA) was immobilized onto a streptavidin-coated coverslip as follows. eGFP was biotinylated by reacting with a 20-fold excess of sulfo-NHS-biotin (Pierce, Rockford, IL) for 3.5 h in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Unreacted biotin was removed by dialyzing twice for 4 h in PBS using 10,000 Da cutoff dialysis bags. The flow cell was treated with 50 µL 1 mg/ml BSA-biotin (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) in T50 (10 mM Tris pH 8.0, 50 mM NaCl), and 50 µL 0.2 mg/ml streptavidin (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR), allowed to react 10 min, and then washed with T50. Biotinylated-eGFP (25–250 pM ) was then added in T50, and excess sometimes washed with T50. The coverslip was translated (NanoH-70 stage, 0.7 nm position accuracy in closed-loop mode, MadCity Labs, Madison, WI) in 36 nm steps. The step size was determined by a calibrated stage and verified by imaging very bright fluorescent beads in which we find an average of 35.4 nm ± 0.2 nm (mean ± SE).
eGFP-myosin V preparation and in vitro motility assay
Production of recombinant baculoviruses driving the expression of heavy meromyosin-like (HMM) fragments of the mouse myosin V were produced as described by Wang et al. (2000). Addition of eGFP at the amino-terminus of the heavy chain was performed as described in Wu et al. (2002). This fusion introduced two alanine residues between the C-terminus of GFP and residue 2 of the myosin V heavy chain. Infection of Sf9 cells and purification of eGFP-labeled myosin V HMM were as described (Wang et al., 2000). Singly labeled eGFP-myosin V was prepared via infection in SF9 cells with a 1:10 ratio of virus for eGFP-myoV and unlabeled myoV along with a virus driving the expression of calmodulin. The resulting preparation was run on an SDS gel, and that the ratio of GFP-HMM/HMM was found to be 0.27. If the two heavy chains recombined randomly then one would expect a binomial distribution of GFP-HMM/HMM, resulting in 7% GFP-HMM homodimers, 53% HMM homodimers, and 39% GFP-HMM/HMM heterodimers. The expected fraction of the total fluorescent spots resulting from homodimers is therefore 7/(39 + 7) x 100% = 15%.
Myosin V with eGFP on both heads was also made and an in vitro motility assay was performed at 37°C, as described previously (Sakamoto et al., 2003). (Buffer conditions were: 50 mM KCl, 20 mM MOPS pH 7.4, 5 mM MgCl2, 0.1 mM EGTA, 2 mM ATP, 50 mM DTT, with the oxygen scavenger system of Harada et al. (1990).
Motility assay
Actin filaments were immobilized on a coverslip and myosin V was allowed to move on actin in the presence of ATP. The protocol closely follows published procedures (Forkey et al., 2003; Yildiz et al., 2003) except nitrocellulose was not used, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) was added to the solution. A deoxygenation system was not used. Briefly, the sample chamber was prepared by flowing 10 µM BSA-biotin, waiting for 2 min, washing with M5BufBH (20 mM HEPES pH 7.6, 2 mM MgCl2, 25 mM KCl, 1 mM EGTA) plus 10 mM DTT and 100 µg/ml calmodulin (M5+), followed by 0.5 µg/ml streptavidin, waiting for 2 min, followed by 0.2 µM 1:10 biotinylated/unbiotinylated phalloidin-stabilized F-actin, followed by M5+ wash, followed by myosin V sample solution. Myosin V sample solution consists of 0.3–1.8 nM eGFP-myosin V, 2.5 mg/ml BSA, 100 mM DTT, 100 µg/ml calmodulin, and 2–4 µM ATP, in M5BufBH. A deoxygenation system was not used because previous work (Swaminathan et al., 1997), as well as our own limited data, indicate no significant photostability enhancement of eGFP upon deoxygenation.
Data acquisition and analysis
Data acquisition and analysis has been described (Yildiz et al., 2003). Briefly, images are captured using the MicroMax camera (Roper Scientific, Tucson, AZ) and saved as multiimage TIF files. A laboratory written program in IDL (Research Systems, Boulder, CO) is used to fit a PSF in successive frames to a 2-D Gaussian function. The position of the center is then used to calculate the step size using scripts written in Octave (www.octave.org), with appropriate statistical weighting according to the uncertainty in position before and after a step (Yildiz et al., 2003). Individual PSFs are fit and analyzed in Sigma Plot (SPSS, Chicago, IL).
Theoretical considerations on localization limits
The relation between the SE (
µ), i.e., the uncertainty in the center, and the number of collected photons (N), the effective pixel size of the imaging detector (a), the standard deviation of the background (b), which includes noise due to background fluorescence and the detector, and the width of the distribution (SD, i, in direction i) was derived by Thompson et al. (2002) in two dimensions:
 | (1) |
) is the photon noise, the second term is the effect of finite pixel size of the detector, and the last term is the effect of background. For our experiments, the camera pixel size is 13 µm, corresponding to a = 144.3 nm with 90x magnification, or 130 nm with 100x magnification; b is typically 10–14 photons (variance of camera dark-counts and background fluorescence is 9 and 4.4–9.4, respectively). |
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSUMMARYSUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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; 
The sample was then translated using a nanometric stage in uniform 36 nm (based on stage voltage) step sizes, one step every 3 s. The 36 nm step size was verified by imaging very bright, unpolarized fluorescent beads and measuring the distance between the PSF centers before and after each step, where we found 35.4 ± 0.2 nm. Fig. 2 shows the PSF center position of each 0.5 s eGFP image versus time. Steps are clearly discernable. The average of the four steps is 34.7 ± 4.1 nm (), in good agreement with the expected value. The average of 25 steps taken from several eGFPs is 36.2 nm ± 4.3 nm ().
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Measuring eGFP-myosin V steps
Fig. 3 shows the PSF of an eGFP-myosin V bound to an immobilized actin filament and fit to a 2-D Gaussian (solid black lines). One-thousand six-hundred and twenty-six photons were collected in 0.5 s. The width () is ± 146 nm, corresponding to a full-width-half-maximum of 321 nm; the uncertainty in the center position (µ) is 6.9 nm. According to Eq. 1 (with b = 8.3 and a = 130 nm), µ. is expected to be 5.6 nm, somewhat smaller than the 6.9 nm found by curve fitting. The difference is likely due to approximations in the theoretical derivation, which Thompson et al. (2002) found tend to lead to 30% underestimation of the actual µ values. The residuals display no systematic structure and 
2 = 0.99, indicating a Gaussian is an excellent approximation to the PSF shape. This is particularly important because finite emission polarization can lead to PSFs that deviate significantly from a Gaussian, particularly in the presence of spherical aberrations (Bartko and Dickson, 1999a,b). Under such conditions, the center of the PSF does not necessarily correspond to the position of the dye. An intensity-versus-time trace is shown in the right-hand inset. The average number of collected photons per 0.5 s image is 1444. The standard deviation is 298, which is significantly larger than 38 (
), the expected standard deviation if the eGFP was a simple Poisson emitter. This implies that the eGFP is likely blinking on and off at variable rates during the acquisition time (Peterman et al., 1999). This blinking, however, has no effect on the PSF shape; it simply causes the overall intensity to fluctuate, and hence µ to vary from image to image.
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We interpret the minor peak centered at 37.5 nm as arising from myosin Vs with eGFP on both heads. (The two eGFPs are sufficiently close that they cannot be resolved into two separate PSFs.) With one eGFP moving 74 nm and the other stationary, the apparent average movement is 37 nm. One molecule, for example, took nine uniform steps of average size 37.4 ± 2.1 nm () before suddenly disappearing by photobleaching or detatching from actin. Because it photobleached in a single step, we cannot unambiguously conclude that it had two eGFPs. However, it emitted 460,000 photons, roughly twice the intensity we usually see for single eGFPs.
Arguments that other small and mixed steppers were eGFP-HMM homodimers follow:
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0.3 µM [ATP] (Yildiz et al., 2003). The cause of this is not known, although the actual [ATP] may differ from the expected value because of dead volume associated with buffer exchange.
GFP-FIONA
These measurements show that we can achieve 
3 nm localization with eGFP. Previously, 1 nm localization was achieved with exogenous dyes. Although the FIONA technique in each case is fundamentally the same, there are some detailed differences. In general eGFP is less bright and photostable than optimized single-molecule dyes such as Cy3, rhodamine, etc. Blinking with eGFP (and rhodamine dyes; Yildiz et al., 2003) with 0.5 s images was present but did not significantly impede nanometer localization. We found the 1.65 NA objective lens was advantageous compared to the 1.45 NA lens with eGFP. (The 1.65 NA objective was not tested with exogenous dyes.) Roughly 1.5 times higher signal/background was achieved with the 1.65 NA objective. This improvement likely comes from a combination of different sources: A), the higher numerical aperture is expected to collect 1.3 times more fluorescent photons; B), we found that background fluorescence from the specialized (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan) coverslips used with the 1.65 NA was 2x lower than the conventional coverslips used with the 1.45 NA objective. (Autofluorescence from the oil was significantly less than from the coverslip.); and C), the higher index of refraction of the 1.65 NA coverslips means the intensity of the evanescent electric field is 7 times higher than the electric field in the coverslip, at the critical angle, compared with a factor of 5 for the 1.45 NA lens (Axelrod, 1989), which again leads to higher signal/background.
Position and nature of the bend
Here we find that an eGFP on the catalytic domain takes 74 nm steps, and previously Yildiz et al. (2003) found a dye on an exchanged calmodulin also takes 74 nm steps. A trivial reason explaining how both step sizes can be the same, is that the labeled calmodulin is bound to the catalytic domain. However, we think this unlikely because there is no evidence that the catalytic domain of myosin V has such a binding site. In contrast, the lever arm (light-chain domain) contains six IQ domains, capable of binding calmodulin. We, therefore, assume that the calmodulin-labeled dye is indeed on the lever arm.
For both the catalytic domains and a dye on the lever arm to take the same alternating 74 nm and 0 nm steps, both the catalytic domains and the dye positions must be 37 nm apart from the midpoint between the two heads (Fig. 1). This implies that the lower part of the front and rear lever arms, where the dye is located, are parallel. This is not consistent with both lever arms being straight (Fig. 1, left), and implies a bend in one or both lever arms. Fig. 1 (right) shows one scenario where all of the bend is in the forward lever arm. It is theoretically possible that the bend/curvature is uniformly distributed between the front and rear lever arms. However, a bend in the front lever arm is functionally more advantageous because all the strain in this lever arm, when released, would go into moving the rear head forward, whereas a bend in the rear lever arm would not. Furthermore, Walker et al. (2000) and Burgess et al. (2002) concluded from electron microscopy images of myosin V that the rear head is in the postpowerstroke state. This would tend to angle the rear lever arm forward, in a relatively straight position, as depicted in Fig. 1 (right). If the lever arms are indeed parallel and the rear head is in the postpowerstroke position, this implies that the front head also has the lever arm in the postpowerstroke position. This would appear to be at odds with the conclusion of Walker et al. (2000) and Burgess et al. (2002).They fit electron microscopic images of the front head into the x-ray structures of the pre- and postpowerstroke states that differ by 5 nm in the position where the lever arm emerges from the motor domain, which should correspond to the position of the converter domain; they concluded that the front head was in the prepowerstroke state. A 5 nm movement of the converter domain, would likely lead to an 8 nm movement of a dye near the bottom of the lever arm. This would lead to dye step sizes for a dye that alternates between 8 nm and 66 nm. Given the 1–4 nm localization precision in Yildiz et al. (2003), this is clearly different from the alternating 0 nm and 74 nm found.
Simple geometric arguments indicate that the kink must be fairly close to the catalytic domain, most likely between the first and second calmodulins. The lever arm is 24 nm in length (Howard, 1997), or 4 nm/calmodulin, and the distance between catalytic domains is 37 nm; see Fig. 1, drawn to scale. (Thirty-seven nanometers corresponds to 13 actin monomers apart. The domains can also bind 11 or 15 monomers apart; Burgess et al., 2002; Walker et al., 2000; Yildiz et al., 2003). If the kink is between the first and second calmodulins, then the remaining 10 calmodulins can span 40 nm, enough to span the distance if extended. A kink between the second and third calmodulins leaves only eight calmodulins to span 37 nm, which is unlikely.
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SUMMARY |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSUMMARYSUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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). In addition, the 74.3 nm steps of the GFP on the globular domain are essentially identical to the 73.8 nm found previously for a dye on the light-chain domain, 18.5 nm from the midpoint along the direction of motion (Yildiz et al., 2003). This in turn implies there is a kink in the lever arm domain above the dye, creating a telemark skier configuration in the waiting state between steps (Fig. 1). The exact position of the kink is unknown, although simple geometric arguments indicate the kink is likely between the first and second IQ domains. More generally, our extension of FIONA to enable nanometer tracking of GFP enables monitoring of conformational changes in proteins that are not readily labeled by exogenous dyes. |
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL |
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSUMMARYSUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (grant AR44420 to P.R.S.).
Submitted on November 5, 2003; accepted for publication May 18, 2004.
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSUMMARYSUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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  Y. Takagi, Y. Yang, I. Fujiwara, D. Jacobs, R. E. Cheney, J. R. Sellers, and M. Kovacs Human Myosin Vc Is a Low Duty Ratio, Nonprocessive Molecular Motor J. Biol. Chem., March 28, 2008; 283(13): 8527 - 8537. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. Jonas, H. Huang, R. D. Kamm, and P. T. C. So Fast Fluorescence Laser Tracking Microrheometry, I: Instrument Development Biophys. J., February 15, 2008; 94(4): 1459 - 1469. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. I. Skau, R. B. Hoyle, and M. S. Turner A Kinetic Model Describing the Processivity of Myosin-V Biophys. J., October 1, 2006; 91(7): 2475 - 2489. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 E. Toprak, J. Enderlein, S. Syed, S. A. McKinney, R. G. Petschek, T. Ha, Y. E. Goldman, and P. R. Selvin Defocused orientation and position imaging (DOPI) of myosin V PNAS, April 25, 2006; 103(17): 6495 - 6499. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. M. Warshaw, G. G. Kennedy, S. S. Work, E. B. Krementsova, S. Beck, and K. M. Trybus Differential Labeling of Myosin V Heads with Quantum Dots Allows Direct Visualization of Hand-Over-Hand Processivity Biophys. J., May 1, 2005; 88(5): L30 - L32. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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x, and the step sizes are larger and smaller than 0 nm and 74 nm, respectively (2x' < 37 nm), for a dye anywhere on the lever arm. In the bent-lever-arm model, the same stepping pattern is seen for a dye above the bend: however, a dye below the bend (purple dot) takes alternating 0 nm, 74 nm steps 
In either model, the catalytic domain step size, as measured by a GFP attached to the N-terminus, is 74 nm.
1–2 µM.
